Bruxism can sometimes be difficult to diagnose by visual evidence alone, as it is not the only cause of tooth wear. Over-vigorous brushing, abrasives in toothpaste, acidic soft drinks and abrasive foods can also be contributing factors, although each causes characteristic wear patterns that a trained professional can identify. Additionally, the presenting symptoms may be difficult for a physician to attribute to bruxism.

The effects of bruxism may be quite advanced before sufferers are aware they brux. Abraded teeth are usually brought to the patient’s attention during a routine dental examination. If enough enamel has been abraded, the softer dentin will be exposed, and abrasion will accelerate. This opens the possibility of dental decay and tooth fracture, and in some people, gum recession. Early intervention by a dentist is advisable.

The most reliable way to diagnose bruxism is through EMG (electromyographic) measurements. These measurements pick up electrical signals from the chewing muscles (masseter and temporalis). This is the method used in sleep labs. There are three forms of EMG measurement available to consumers for use outside sleep labs. The first is bedside EMG units similar to those used by sleep labs. These units can be purchased for about $2000 and pick up their signals from facial muscles through wires connecting the bedside unit to electrodes that are adhesively attached to the user’s face. TENS electrodes or ECG electrodes may be used.

The second type of EMG measurement available to consumers is a self-contained EMG measurement headband sold under the trade name ”SleepGuard”, available on loan from some dentists or at a rental rate of $50 per month from the manufacturer. The EMG measurement headband does not require adhesive electrodes or wires attached to the face. While it does not record the exact time, duration, and strength of each clenching incident as the most expensive bedside EMG monitors do, it does record the total number of clenching incidents and the total clenching time each night. These two numbers easily distinguish clenching from rhythmic grinding and allow dentists to quantify severity levels accurately.

Bedside EMG units and the self-contained EMG measurement headband can both be used either in silent mode as a diagnosis measurement or in biofeedback mode as a treatment.

A third method of diagnosis using EMG is available in disposable form under the trade name BiteStrip. The BiteStrip is a self-contained EMG module that adhesively mounts to the side of the face over the masseter muscle. The BiteStrip can only do one night of measurement and does not display the clench count or total clenching time, but rather provides a single-digit display related to bruxism severity. The BiteStrip provides significantly less information than an EMG bedside unit or EMG headband and costs about $60 per day to use.

Associated factors

The following factors are associated with bruxism:

*Disturbed sleep patterns and other sleep disorders (obstructive sleep apnea, hypopnea, snoring, moderate daytime sleepiness)

*Malocclusion, in which the upper and lower teeth occlude in a disharmonic way, e.g., through premature contact of back teeth

*Relatively high levels of consumption of caffeinated drinks and foods, such as coffee, colas, and chocolate

*High levels of blood alcohol

*Smoking

*High levels of anxiety, stress, work-related stress, irregular work shifts, stressful profession and ineffective coping strategies

*Drug use, such as SSRIs and stimulants, including methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methylphenidate and other amphetamines, including those taken for medical reasons

*Hypersensitivity of the dopamine receptors in the brain

*GHB and similar GABA-inducing analogues such as Phenibut, when taken with high frequency

*Disorders such as Huntington’s and Parkinson’s diseases

*Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Bruxism, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Release of CRH from the hypothalamus is influenced by stress, by blood levels of cortisol and by the sleep/wake cycle. In healthy individuals, cortisol

rises rapidly after wakening, reaching a peak within 30–45 minutes. It then gradually

falls over the day, rising again in late afternoon. Cortisol levels then fall in late

evening, reaching a trough during the middle of the night. An abnormally flattened

circadian cortisol cycle has been linked with chronic fatigue syndrome (MacHale, 1998),

insomnia (Backhaus, 2004) and burnout (Pruessner, 1999).

Anatomical connections between brain areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus facilitate activation of the HPA axis. Sensory information arriving at the lateral aspect of the amygdala is processed and conveyed to the central nucleus, which projects to several parts of the brain involved in responses to fear. At the hypothalamus, fear-signaling impulses activate both the sympathetic nervous system and the modulating systems of the HPA axis.

Increased production of cortisol mediates alarm reactions to stress, facilitating an adaptive phase of a general adaptation syndrome in which alarm reactions including the immune response are suppressed, allowing the body to attempt countermeasures.

Glucocorticoids have many important functions, including modulation of stress reactions, but in excess they can be damaging. Atrophy of the hippocampus in humans and animals exposed to severe stress is believed to be caused by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of glucocorticoids. Deficiencies of the hippocampus may reduce the memory resources available to help a body formulate appropriate reactions to stress.

The HPA axis is involved in the neurobiology of mood disorders and functional illnesses, including anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder, ADHD, major depressive disorder, burnout, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and alcoholism. Antidepressants, which are routinely prescribed for many of these illnesses, serve to regulate HPA axis function.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Lelord studied medicine and psychology; after getting his doctoral degree in 1985, he was a post-doctorate researcher with Robert Liberman at the University of California, Los Angeles. After that, he worked as an attending physician at Hôpital Necker (which is affiliated with Descartes University) in Paris for two years. In 1989 he opened up his own practice which he closed down in 1996 to work as an advisor on stress and job satisfaction for several companies. Since 2004, he has been working as a psychiatrist in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article François Lelord, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA or HTPA axis), also known as the

limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (LHPA axis) and, occasionally, as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-gonadotropic axis, is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (a pea-shaped structure located below the hypothalamus), and the adrenal (or suprarenal) glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys). The interactions among these organs constitute the HPA axis, a major part of the neuroendocrine system that controls reactions to stress and regulates many body processes, including digestion, the immune system, mood and emotions, sexuality, and energy storage and expenditure. A wide variety of species, from the most ancient organisms to humans, share components of the HPA axis. It is the common mechanism for interactions among glands, hormones, and parts of the midbrain that mediate the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Afrikaans

Modern Afrikaans rarely makes the distinction between the informal “jy” and “jou” (“you” subject and “your” / “you” object) and the more formal “u” (or “U” when addressing God), although sometimes it is upheld in a formal setting, such as in politics, business or in a polite conversation. The trend is moving towards using the informal pronoun most often.

Arabic

Modern Standard Arabic does not have a T–V distinction, using أنت (”anta”, male) and أنتِ (”anti”, female) in the singular, أنتما ”antumā” (for male and female) in the dual, and أنتم ”antum” or أنتن ”antunna” in the plural.

Basque

Basque has three levels of formality: ”hi”, ”zu” and ”berori”.

The most neutral is zu, that is considered the formal one. The informal one is hi and its use is limited to some specific situations: among friends, parents to address their children (never otherwise, neither the spouses among them), to children and to pets.

Unlike “zu”, “hi” makes a distinction whether the addressed one is a male or a female (for example: ”duk” (you, male, have) and ”dun” (you, female, have)); also obligates the speaker to change any other verb forms to mark this distinction about the addressed one, even in 3rd and 1st person verbs. This is called ”hitano” (for example: ”du” (s/he has, neutral form); ”dik” (s/he has, male you) and ”din” (s/he has, female you)).

The third form, berori, is a very strongly formal pronoun hardly used nowadays, used to address priests, judges and nobility. It uses the 3rd form verbs.

The plural form used to be “zu”, but since it was adopted as a neutral form for the singular, a pluralized version was made up: ”zuek”, for both respectful and familiar relationships.

”See”: Basque personal pronouns.

Bengali

Bengali has three levels of formality in its pronouns; the most neutral forms of address among closer members of a family are তুমি ”tumi” and তোমরা ”tomra” (plural). These two pronouns are also typically used when speaking to children, or to younger members of the extended family. তুমি ”tumi” is also used when addressing God. When speaking with adults outside the family, or with senior members of the extended family, the pronouns আপনি ”apni” and আপনারা ”apnara” (plural) are used. This is also true in advertisements and public announcements. A third set of pronouns, তুই ”tui” and তোরা ”tora” (plural), is reserved for use between very close friends, and by extension, between relatives who share a bond not unlike a close friendship. It is also used when addressing people presumed to be of “inferior” social status; this latter use is occasionally used when speaking to housemaids, rickshaw-pullers, and other service workers, although this use is considered offensive.

The situations in which these different pronouns can be used vary considerably depending on many social factors. In some families, children may address their parents with আপনি ”apni” and আপনারা ”apnara”, although this is becoming increasingly rare. Some adults alternate between all three pronoun levels when speaking to children, normally choosing তুমি ”tumi” and তোমরা ”tomra”, but also often choosing তুই ”tui” and তোরা ”tora” to indicate closeness, or আপনি ”apni” or আপনারা ”apnara” in a joking manner. Additionally, Bengalis vary in which pronoun they use when addressing servants in the home; some may use আপনি ”apni” and আপনারা ”apnara” to indicate respect for an adult outside the family, while others may use তুমি ”tumi” and তোমরা ”tomra” to indicate either inclusion into the family or to indicate somewhat less honorable status. Others may even use তুই ”tui” and তোরা ”tora” to indicate inferior status.

Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian

Use of ”ti” is limited to friends and family, and used among children. In any formal use, ”vi” is used only; ”ti” can be used among peers in a workplace but rarely in official documents. It is a common misconception, even among native speakers, that ”vi” is always capitalized when used in formal tone; ”Vi” is capitalized only in direct personal correspondence between two persons.

Bulgarian

Bulgarian distinguishes between familiar ”ti” (”ти”) and respectful ”Vie” (”Вие”), although both words literally mean “you”. Basically, “ti” is singular and “vie” is plural, but there are some notable exceptions. ”Ti” (pronounced as the “”ti”” in “”ti”mber”, and spelled “ти”) means singular “you” and implies that you know the individual personally. The word ”Vie” (pronounced as “”vie”” in “”Vie”tnam”) has either plural or singular meaning, depending on context.

When referring to more than one person, the plural ”vie” is used always. For example, “”Вие” двамата напуснете, моля!” means “”You” two leave, please!”), and here, although “ti” and “vie” both means “you”, “ti” can not be used.

When addressing to one person, if the people talking each other are acquainted then singular “ti” is used, otherwise plural “Vie” should be used. This “singular plural” is usually hard to understand and often people start new acquaintance straight forward with singular “ti”, but generally this is considered offensive, rude, or simply not polite. Children are taught to use always “ti” between themselves, unless addressing to more than one child or an unknown adult. One notable rule is that when a conversation between a teacher and a student takes place, then it is imperative the student uses the polite form, but this is not so in the opposite direction.

The grammatically correct spelling of the singular word “Vie” is always with capital “V”, whether being the first word in a sentence or not. For example, the sentence “But ”you” are wrong!”, if spelled (in Bulgarian) “Но ”Вие” грешите!” (the word “Вие” with capital “В”), it would convey that the speaker is addressing an individual person with a plural, because he/she wants to express a polite, official manner; if spelt “Но ”вие” грешите!” (the second possible Bulgarian translation of “But ”you” are wrong!”), it would then mean that someone is talking to several persons.

Generally, ”ti” is used amongst friends and relatives. When talking to each other, young people often start with the formal ”vie” but quickly transition to ”ti” in an informal situation. Unless there is a substantial difference in social situation (e.g. a teacher and a student), the choice of the form is symmetric: if A. uses ”ti” to address B., then B. also uses ”ti” to address A.. While people may transition quickly from ”vie” to ”ti”, such transition presumes mutual agreement. There is a recent trend not to use the formal “Vie” at all (or mostly at all), but this can lead to awkward situations.

Catalan

Catalan ”vós” follows the same concordance rules as the French ”vous” (verbs in second person plural, adjectives in singular), and ”vostè” follows the same concordance rules as the Spanish ”usted” (verbs in 3rd person). ”Vostè” originated from ”vostra mercè” as a calque from Spanish, and replaced the original Catalan form ”vós”.

In some dialects of Catalan, ”vós” is no longer used. Other dialects have a three-way distinction ”tu/vós/vostè”, where ”vós” is used as a respectful form for elders and respected friends, and ”vostè” for foreigners and people whom one does not know well. ”Vostè” is more distant than ”vós”.

Chinese (Mandarin)

Historically, Mandarin has upheld its T–V distinction rigorously in speech as well as in writing. This is particularly evident in Beijing, whose dialect formed the basis for Standard Mandarin. Written Chinese, which generally strives for a more formal, or even semi-archaic tone, consistently makes the T–V distinction, sometimes even going so far as to employ archaic forms no longer used in speech such as 閣下 (阁下), géxià, literally, ”from below the pagoda”, meaning basically “Your Excellency”, used in extremely formal situations in Imperial China. Although rarely, 前辈 (前輩 trad. characters, pronounced qiánbèi), character-wise literally “older generation”, meaning “Elder(s)”, is still sometimes used in very formal settings when there is a very large age gap between the speaker and the listener.

In contrast to many European languages, the T–V distinction in Mandarin is predicated much more on the chronological age of the speakers than on their social positions. A possible exception is if there is a very large gap in the social status/standing within an exchange. For example, formality may be used when one is addressing one’s superior in the workplace, or when a servant is addressing an employer, or when a waiter at a restaurant is addressing a customer. People of a similar age who are not acquainted with each other will generally address each other using the informal 你 (nǐ). The formal variant of 你 (nǐ) is 您 (nín), and the character 您 is composed of 你 with the element of the heart, 心 (xīn ”heart”), added below it. Among its uses, one addresses older people using 您 (nín). As shown by presence of the element of the heart in the character, the word is also used to indicate affection expressed in a formal way. This includes addressing one’s parents using 您 (nín). Situations where two people address each other using 您 are relatively rare, unless expressing such formal affection is the intent of both parties. 您 may thus, for example, be used among close family members, or in formal discourse between heads of state. It is worth noticing that unlike a TV-distinction like the one followed in modern French with the word “vous”, using 您 in this way in Mandarin Chinese does not carry any implication of distance or a lack of intimacy.

In many of the southern Chinese languages (for example Wu), there is no T–V distinction made at all. Formality in these languages is indicated by use of different kinship terms only, much like other Asian languages (such as Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese). Because of this, some southern Chinese, whose mother tongue is not Mandarin, when speaking Mandarin find it irrelevant, unnecessary, and sometimes difficult to make the distinction. However, as almost all native Chinese speakers (including overseas Chinese) understand the rudimentary rules with regard to the agglutination-”cum”-contextual rules in Chinese languages, this is merely a minor set-back at the beginning of the Mandarin-learning stage – the addition of a 心 (xīn) to 你 in 您 speaks for itself. Nevertheless, many southern Chinese often see 您 as a form of expressing (formal) affections only and do not make the subtle distinction that 您 may be used in various formal communications. This simple linguistic ”faux pas” has earned many southern migrants in Beijing and other northern cities a reputation for being rude and uncouth.

Although the plural forms of personal pronouns in Mandarin are typically formed by adding the suffix -們 (-men) (们 = simplified character) to their singular counterparts, the construction of 您們 is quite rare in Standard Mandarin; indirect constructions such as 大家 (dàjiā, everyone) or 諸位 (zhū wèi, written language) resp. 各位 (gèwèi, polite/formal) are preferred when addressing a crowd. The use of 您們 remains extant in the Beijing dialect, however, which retains a number of distinctions lost in Standard Mandarin. Examples of its use include situations where a small number of older people with whom one is relatively familiar is directly addressed, making 大家 (dàjiā) awkward. In Taiwanese Mandarin, 您們 is still encountered as an address in the service industry, spoken as well as written, for two or more customers.

Czech

There are three levels of formality in the Czech language. The most formal is using the plural verb forms with the surname or title of the addressed person, usual between strangers or people in a professional relationship. The second common form is made by using the singular verb forms together with the given name of the other person, used between friends and in certain social groups (students etc.). The third form, which is quite uncommon, is using the plural verb forms and the given name. It may be used by a teacher when addressing a student, or by a boss addressing his secretary, or in other relationships which are more familiar than between strangers but still not friendship. Please note that using the singular verb forms together with the surname or title is considered very rude.

Traditionally, use of the informal form was limited for relatives, very close friends, and for children. During the second half of the 20th century, use of the informal form grew significantly among coworkers, youth and members of organisations and groups. The formal form is always used in official documents and when dealing with a stranger (especially an older one) as a sign of respect. 2nd-person pronouns (”Ty, Tvůj, Vy, Váš”) are often capitalized in letters, advertisement, etc. The capitalization is optional and is slowly becoming obsolete. A variant of the formal form modeled after German “Sie” (”Oni/oni”, ”Jejich/jejich”, verb ”onikat”) was frequently used during 19th century but disappeared.

In grammar, plural forms are used in personal and possessive pronouns (”vy” – you, ”váš” – your) and in verbs, but not in participles and adjectives, they are used in singular forms (when addressing a single person). This is a difference from some other Slavic languages (Slovak, Russian, etc.)

Greetings are also connected with T–V distinction. Formal ”dobrý den” (good day) and ”na shledanou” (good-bye) are used with formal ”vy”, while ”ahoj, nazdar, čau” (meaning both ”hello, hi”, and ”bye”) are informal and used with ”ty”.

Danish

In Denmark, the use of the formal forms of address has diminished significantly over the last twenty years. ”De” is still used in the written language, in official letters and the like, but the spoken form will be ”du”. ”De” must be written with a capital “D”. For example, a letter from the Inspector of Taxes inviting you a meeting to go through last year’s tax return will use ”De”, but during the meeting itself, everyone will say ”du”. Waiters might very occasionally use ”De”, but this is unexpectedly formal.

In general, say ”du” to one person, and ”I” to more than one. Write ”du” if you know the name of the person to whom you are writing and ”De” if you do not.

The word ”de” with the small “d” is the third-person plural pronoun – equivalent to “they.”

Dutch

Dutch has three forms of second person pronouns, namely ”u”, ”gij” and ”jij”. In the case of ”gij/jij”, ”ge/je” are its unstressed variants (whereas ”jou” is the accusative of ”jij” and – confusingly – ”u” also serves as the accusative of ”gij”). Corresponding possessive pronouns are ”uw” and ”jouw” (or ”je” in its unstressed form). In Dutch, the T–V distinction is difficult as it relies mainly on (personal) status.

”U” is the formal pronoun used in all Dutch speaking regions, whereas ”jij” or ”gij” are used as the informal personal pronouns to address someone. The choice between ”jij” or ”gij” varies from region to region. ”Jij” is preferred in writing in both the Netherlands and Belgium, but when speech is concerned speakers in the Netherlands tend to use ”jij” and Dutch-speakers in Belgium tend to use ”gij”. The southern part of the Netherlands (mainly Brabant) also uses ”gij”, but not when addressing people from outside Brabant, as the majority of the Netherlands uses ”jij”. Religious Dutch speakers address God using either ”Gij” or ”U”; ”jij” is never used.

The pronoun ”je” can also be used impersonally, corresponding to the English generic you. The more formal Dutch term corresponding to English generic you or one is ”men”.

In Dutch the formal personal pronoun is used for older people or for people with a higher or equal status, unless the addressed makes it clear he wants to be spoken to with the informal pronoun. Unlike for example in German, there is no defined line (in the case of German, roughly when someone passes the age of 16) in which everyone, apart from family, is addressed with the formal pronoun. A Dutch speaker might be addressed by ”jij” by his cousin, but ”u” by his children, although many people use ”jij” to address their parents (and ”jij” is sometimes even used to address grandparents).

English

Anglo-Saxon (Old English) had no distinction between the formal and informal second person, expressed as “thou”. In the 13th century, the term “ye” or “you”, previously the second person plural, was used as a formal singular version of “thou” (to superiors or non-intimates), with “thou” used as the familiar, informal form. However, this use was often contextually-dependent (i.e., changing dynamically according to shifting nuances in the relationship between two people), rather than static. By the 17th century, “thou” increasingly acquired connotations of contemptuous address, or of addressing one’s social inferiors (so the prosecutor in Sir Walter Raleigh’s 1603 trial declaimed “I thou thee, thou traitor!”). Accordingly, the frequency of use of “thou” started to decline, and it was effectively extinct in the everyday speech of many dialects by the early 18th century, supplanted by “you”, which became both the singular and plural form. The Quakers could still cause huge offence by addressing all individuals as “thou” for religious reasons (and refusing to remove hats or bow). Its use is now archaic except in certain regional dialects (for example in South Yorkshire) usually as “tha”, and Modern English today makes no T–V distinction.

The use of the term “thou”, however, survives in some Christian liturgical language when addressing God, most notably in popular translations of the Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments. It is also found in liturgical dialogue (for example, “V. The Lord be with you R. And with thy spirit.”). This is not an indication of familiarity but retention of the original distinction between singular “thou/thee/thy” and plural “ye/you/your”, reflecting the corresponding singular and plural Greek forms in the original texts.

In Latter-day Saint prayer tradition, the terms “thee” and “thou” are often used to address God as a mark of respect.

Originally “ye” and “thou” were nominative pronouns, while “you” and “thee” were objective forms, but by the 15th century, “you” had started being used as a subject pronoun, and only “thee” survived into Quaker “Plain Speech”.

Esperanto

Esperanto is not a T–V-distinguishing language. ”Vi” is the generic second person for both singular and plural, just like ”you” in modern English. An informal second person singular pronoun, ”ci”, does exist, but it is almost never used in practice. It is mainly intended to make the familiar/respectful distinction when translating (literature for example) from languages that do have the T–V-distinction.

Some have imagined ”ci” as an archaic term that was used before and then fell out of common usage; however, this is not true. It has appeared only sometimes in experimental language. In standard Esperanto, ”vi” has always been used since the beginning. For example, ”ci” appears in neither the ”Fundamenta Gramatiko” nor the ”Unua Libro”.

Estonian

Estonian is a language with T–V distinction, second person plural (”teie”) is used instead of second person singular (”sina”) as a means of expressing politeness or formal speech. ”Sina” is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. The distinction is still much more widely used and more rigid than in closely related Finnish language.

Similar to the French language ”vouvoyer”, the verb ”teietama” is used, and ”teie” is used when addressing a (new) customer or a patient, or when talking to a person in his/her function. In hierarchical organizations, like large businesses or armies, ”sina” is used between members of a same rank/level while ”teie” is used between members of different ranks. ”Sina” (the verb ”sinatama” is also used) is used with relatives, friends, when addressing children and with close colleagues. Borderline situations, such as distant relatives, young adults, customers in rental shops or new colleagues, sometimes still present difficulties.

Finnish

Today, the use of the informal singular form of address (”sinä”) is widespread in all social circles, even among strangers and in business situations. A counter-trend has been reported in recent years, whereby some people are choosing to use the formal form more often. It mostly occurs in addressing the elderly or in situations where strict adherence to form is expected, such as in the military. As the use of the form conveys formal recognition of the addressee’s status and, more correctly, of polite social distance, the formal form might also occasionally be used jeeringly or to protest the addressee’s snobbery. A native speaker may also switch to formal form when speaking in anger, as an attempt to remain civil. Advertisements, instructions and other formal messages are mostly in informal singular form (”sinä” and its conjugations), but the use of formal forms has increased in recent years. For example, as the tax authorities tend to become more informal, in contrast the social security system is reverting back to using the formal form.

The same forms, such as the pronoun ”te”, are used for formal singular and for both formal and informal plural. Occasionally in written language the formal singular pronoun capitalized (”Te”) to distinguish it from a plural (”te”).

In Finnish the number is expressed in pronouns (”sinä” or ”sä” for second person singular, or ”te” for second person plural), verb inflections, and possessive suffixes. Almost all of these elements follow the grammar of the second person plural also in the formal singular form. For example, polite ”Voisitteko te siirtää autonne” vs. informal ”Voisitko (sinä) siirtää autosi”, “Could you move your car, (please)?”. Each of the person markers are modified: ”-t-” to ”-tte-” (verb person), ”sinä” to ”te” (pronoun), ”-si” to ”-nne” (possessive suffix).

As a few examples of this could be mentioned the way imperatives are expressed: ”Menkää!” “Go!” (plural) and the usage of the plural suffix ”-nne” “your” instead of the singular ”-si” “your”.

There is number agreement in Finnish, thus you say ”sinä olet” “you are” (singular), but ”te olette” “you are” (plural). However, this does not extend to words describing the addressee, which are in the singular, e.g. ”oletteko te lääkäri?” “are you doctor?” (plural,plural,singular)

A common error, nowadays often made even by native speakers unused to the formal forms, is to use the plural form of the main verb in the perfect and pluperfect constructions. The main verb should be in the singular when addressing one person in the formal plural: ”Oletteko kuullut?” instead of ”*Oletteko kuulleet?” “Have you heard?”

Sometimes the third person is used as a polite form of address, after the Swedish model: ”Mitä rouvalle saisi olla?” “What would madam like to have?” This is far less common in the Eastern parts of Finland, influenced less by the Swedish language and all in all a declining habit. The passive voice may be used to circumvent the choice of the correct form of address; the passive voice is also the equivalent of the English patronizing ”we” as in ”Kuinkas tänään voidaan?” “How are we feeling today?”

Finnish language includes the verbs for calling one with informal singular or formal plural: ”sinutella”, ”teititellä”, respectively.

In the Bible and in the Kalevala, only the “informal” singular is used in all cases.

Frisian

The closest modern language to English, the formal singular nominative ”jo” (pronounced ”yo”) is very close to the English ”you” and the Middle and Early Modern English ”ye”. In some parts of eastern Germany, the plural familiar nominative is ”jöch” instead of ”euch”; the former is much closer to its English counterpart.

French

In most French-speaking regions (Canada is an exception; see “North American French” below), a rigid T–V distinction is upheld. With regard to the second person singular, ”tu” is used informally, whereas ”vous” is used to convey formality. (The second person plural is always ”vous”.) The formal ”vous” is expected when encountering any unknown adult under normal circumstances. In general, the switch from ”vous” to ”tu” is “negotiated” on a case-by-case basis; it can happen nearly unconsciously, or can be explicitly negotiated. The verb ”tutoyer” means “address someone with ”tu”-forms, speak informally”; by contrast ”vouvoyer” means “address someone with ”vous” forms”. Rigidly sticking to ”vous” can become equally awkward in a long-standing relationship.

In certain circumstances, however, ”tu” is used more broadly. For example, new acquaintances who are conscious of having something socially significant in common (e.g., student status, or the same “rank” in some hierarchy) often use ”tu” more or less immediately. In some cases, there may be an explicitly defined practice in a particular company, political party, as to the use of ”tu” and ”vous”. Also, using the ”vous” in conjunction with someone’s given name is rather current in France as a less formal way of addressing someone, e.g. at work, among members of an association etc. Children and adolescents generally use ”tu” to speak with someone of their own age, whether known or not. ”Tu” can also be used to show disrespect to a stranger, such as when surprising a thief or cursing other drivers on the road.

”Vous” may be used to distance oneself from a person one does not want to interact with. Additionally, two people who use ”tu” in their private interactions may consciously switch back to ”vous” in public in order to act appropriately in a formal or professional environment, to play the part in an artificially constructed situation (e.g., co-hosts of a television show), or simply to conceal the nature of their relationship from others.

In families, ”vous” was traditionally used to address older family members. Children were taught to use ”vous” to address their parents, and ”vous” was used until about 1950 between spouses of the higher classes. It is still in use between spouses in the French upper class. Former president Jacques Chirac and his wife Bernadette are a prominent example.

When praying, ”tu” is nowadays often used in addressing the deity, though ”vous” was used in Catholic prayers until the Second Vatican Council, and is still used to address the Blessed Virgin Mary. In Louisiana, however, ”vous” is always used to convey a sense of respect and reverence when praying.

Sources:

*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2000/02/19/blume.t.php "Mastering the Unmasterable: A French Puzzle"] Mary Blume, ”International Herald Tribune”, February 19, 2000

*[http://www.largeur.com/expArt.asp?artID=1868 "Dites-moi tu"] Sophie Balbo, ”L’Hebdo”, June 23, 2005

Belgian French

In French-speaking Belgium, usage is mostly identical to that in Standard French. However, linguistic interference from Dutch and the Walloon language can influence the speech of those who have these as their first languages:

*Flemings who are native-speakers of Dutch have a tendency when speaking French to use ”tu” in as wide a range of contexts (both familiar and formal) as they do the ”jij / je” of Dutch. A ”tu” used in formal circumstances — which from a native French speaker would normally be taken as a sign of deliberate rudeness — will be “forgiven” when uttered by a native Dutch speaker (as identified by his or her accent).

*In Walloon, the use of which tends, in any case, to be restricted mostly to “familiar” contexts, ”vos” (=”vous”) is the general usage and is considered informal and friendly. ”Ti” (=”tu”), on the other hand, is considered vulgar, and its use can be taken as an expression of an aggressive attitude towards the person addressed. This influence from Walloon affects the usage of ”tu” and ”vous” in the French spoken in Belgium, though more so among people accustomed to using Walloon as their everyday language (a tiny minority, mostly in the countryside). The influence of Standard French, particularly as exercised through the mass media, is eroding this particularity amongst younger French-speakers.

North American French

North American dialects of French, including Quebec French and Acadian French as well as Louisiana Cajun and Creole French, permit and expect a far broader usage of the familiar ”tu” than in Standard French. There are still circumstances in which it is appropriate to say ”vous”: in a formal interview (notably for a job) or when addressing people of very high rank (such as judges or prime ministers), senior citizens, customers or new acquaintances in a formal setting. As acquaintances become familiar with one another, they may find ”vous” to be unnecessarily formal and may agree to return to the ”tu” with which they are generally more comfortable.

For a number of Francophones in Canada, ”vous” sounds stilted or snobbish, and archaic. ”Tu” is by no means restricted to intimates or social inferiors. There is however an important minority of people, often those who call for a use of standard French in Quebec, who prefer to be addressed as ”vous”. At Radio-Canada (the public broadcaster, often considered as establishing the normative objectives of standard French in Canada), the use of ”vous” is widespread even among colleagues.

German

”Sie” and ”du”

In German, the respectful form is the same as the third person plural (”sie”), rather than the second person plural (which in German is ”ihr”). The second person sense is always capitalized (”Sie”) in writing, as well as its accusative and dative forms, to avoid any ambiguity. Danish and, through Danish, Norwegian, have adopted this German third person plural model. Verbs used with this form of address are also identical to third person plural forms. In requests and demands, it is considered good manners to combine ”Sie” not only with ”bitte” (please) but also with the subjunctive mood, for example: ”Würden Sie bitte das Fenster schließen?” (Would you please close the window?) instead of ”Schließen Sie bitte das Fenster!” (Please close the window).

The corresponding informal German address is ”du”. The verbs ”duzen” and ”siezen” mean respectively “to thou” and “to address using you” and the phrases ”per du” or ”auf du und du” mean, “to be on du terms”. In general terms, ”Sie” is used with persons who would be addressed in English with ”Mr.” or ”Ms.”, while ”du” is used as soon as one progresses to first-name terms. In Internet chats and forums, however, Germans rarely use ”Sie”, although there are exceptions. Sometimes, switching back to ”Sie” is used as a method of distancing oneself from the addressee. The connotation is slightly ironic courtesy.

When speaking to more than one person in formal situations, ”Sie” is used in standard German, although ”ihr” can often be heard instead, especially in the South of Germany.

In northern Germany, there is an intermediate address combining ”Sie” with the first name (“Hamburger Sie”), whereas in the Berlin region, sometimes ”Du” is combined with the surname (“Berliner Du”). The former usage also occurs when addressing teenagers, household staff, or guests of TV or radio programs, while the latter style is usually considered inferior and mainly occurs in working class environments. It may be associated with professional contexts, when colleagues have known one another for a long time, but, e. g. due to differences of status, do not want to switch to the usual ”Du” style; or in situations where strangers (e.g. customers) are present for whom it would not be appropriate to learn the first name of the addressee.

Generally it can be said that everyone up to the age of sixteen can be addressed as ”du” without problems, with a tendency to start addressing children with ”Sie” at the age of fourteen in East Germany, while West Germans tend towards delaying this until the teens are 18. High school students in Germany are often called ”Sie” by their teachers when they enter the ”Oberstufe” – the last 2 or 3 years of high school – around the age of 16 or 17. However, many students do not mind if their teacher confuses ”du” and ”Sie”, especially if the teacher and the student have already known each other before the beginning of the ”Oberstufe”. In most circumstances, adults should at first always be called ”Sie”. However there are many exceptions; for instance, university students nowadays always address each other with ”du” (except for some fraternities who deliberately adopt a so-called ‘Siez-Comment’), as do members of the parties on the political left. Children and teenagers are expected to address all adults who are not family members or family friends whom the child has known since it was very young, as ”Sie”. Street and similar social workers will usually, sports clubs trainers will sometimes tell children and teens to address them with ”du”. In shops, bars, and other establishments, if they target a younger audience, it is becoming increasingly common for customers and staff to address each other as ”du”, to the degree that it is sometimes considered awkward if a waitress and a customer who are both in their twenties call each other ”Sie”.

Usage varies in the German-speaking world when addressing a group containing both ”du” and ”Sie” persons from the speaker’s point of view. Some speakers use the informal plural ”ihr”, others prefer the formal ”Sie” and many, concerned that both pronouns might cause offence, prefer to use circumlocutions which avoid either pronoun.

In Germany, an old custom (called ”Brüderschaft trinken”, drinking brotherhood) involves two friends formally sharing a bottle of wine or drinking a glass of beer together to celebrate their agreement (initially proposed by the elder or socially higher-standing of the two, or by the lady to the gentleman) to call one another ”du” rather than ”Sie”. This custom has also been adopted among the Swiss-French of the Jura, and in Poland (called by its German name, ”bruderszaft”), though the custom in Poland is now slowly disappearing. It was formerly found also in Sweden.

It is also a custom to propose the use of ”du” rather than ”Sie” by stating one’s first name (as in: ”Ich heiße…”). One accepts the proposal by introducing one’s own first name. Should a person later forget that they have adopted ”du”, it is polite to remind them by saying, ”Wir waren doch per du” (We moved on to ‘du’ terms).

Historical predecessors: ”Ihr” and ”Er/Sie”

”Ihr”, (literally meaning “you” in the plural sense), capitalized, was formerly used in addressing social superiors, unless more informal relations had been established. This form is still found today in some dialects as a respectful way of addressing elders, and is still very often found in works of art and literature (such as books and movies) depicting events at least several centuries in the past, or in a “past-like” fantasy setting, even if modern German is otherwise used in these works; indeed, using the modern ”Sie” in such a setting would be considered an out-of-place anachronism. This form is somewhat analogous to the English majestic plural.

”Er” (male, literally “he”) or ”Sie” (female, literally “she”), capitalized, was similarly used in the second person to address a social inferior, as a master addressing a servant, but is now obsolete, except in the Northeast, where it sometimes replaces ”Sie” as formal address. Unlike the above-mentioned ”Ihr” form, this form is not widely known or understood by the average person any more.

Both ”Ihr” and ”Er/Sie” go by a similar grammar rule pertaining to the verb used with these addresses as modern ”Sie”. The dated capitalized address ”Ihr” demands the same verb form as the modern second person plural pronoun ”ihr”, and dated ”Er/Sie” demands the same verb form as the modern third person singular ”er” and ”sie”.

Greek

In Greek, ”sý” (σύ) was originally the singular, and ”hymeis” (υμείς) the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. Paul addressed King Agrippa II as ”sý” (Acts 26:2). Later, ”hymeís” and ”hēmeís” (ημείς) (“we”) became too close in pronunciation, and a new plural ”seís” or ”eseís” (σεις/εσείς) was invented, the initial ”e” (ε) being a euphonic prefix that was also extended to the singular (”sý/esý”).

In Modern Greek, εσείς (”eseís”, second person plural) with second person plural verb conjugation is used as the formal counterpart of εσύ (”esý”, second person singular) when talking to strangers and elders, although in everyday life it is common to speak to strangers of your age or younger than you using the singular pronoun. In addition, the informal second person singular is used even with older people you are acquainted with, depending on the level of mutual familiarity.

Since the formal εσείς (”eseís”) starts getting less common outside schools and workplaces, many people often do not know which form to use (because using a formal version might sound too snobbish even to an elder and using the informal version might sound inappropriate to some strangers) and thus prefer to replace verbs with nouns (avoiding the dilemma) until enough information on the counterpart’s intentions is gathered in order to choose between formal or informal second person pronoun and verb conjugation. A good rule of thumb is that singular accompanies first names and plural accompanies surnames with title (Mr, Mrs, etc.). Exceptions are rare, for example younger schoolchildren may address their teacher in the plural, title and ”first name”, or an officer may address a soldier in the singular and surname. The faux pas sequence singular-title-surname can often indicate lack of education, of good manners, or of both.

The modern social custom when using the Greek language in Greece is to ask the other person “may we speak in the singular?” in which the other person is expected to answer “yes” and afterwards the discussion continues using the informal ”εσύ” (”esý”); it is unthinkable for the other person to answer “no” or show preference for plural forms, and for this reason one should not even ask this question to a person of high status, such as a professional. Therefore, asking this question can itself be considered a form of disrespect in some social situations. Likewise, not asking this question and simply using the singular without prior explicit or implicit agreement would also be considered disrespectful in various social contingencies. In other cases, even using the formal plural (without a question) could also be considered offensive. A person being inappropriately addressed in the singular will often indicate their displeasure by insisting on responding in the plural, in a display of irony that may or may not be evident to the other party. A similar social custom exists with the words ”κύριε” (Mr/Sir) and ”κυρία” (Mrs/Madam) which can show both respect and a form of “mock respect” which essentially communicates disapproval, often depending on the voice intonation and the social situation. Overall, the distinction between formal and informal forms of address and when to use each can be quite subtle and not easily discernible by a non-native speaker.

Hebrew

In modern Hebrew, there is a T–V distinction used in a set of very formal occasions, for example, a lawyer addressing a judge, or when speaking to rabbis. The second person singular “אתה” (”ata”, masculine) or “את” (”at”, feminine) are the usual form of address in all other situations, i.e. when addressing ministers or members of the Knesset.

The formal form of address when speaking to a person of higher authority is the third person singular using the person’s title without the use of the pronoun. Thus, a rabbi could be asked: “כבוד הרב ירצה לאכול?” (”would the honorable rabbi like to eat?”) or a judge told: “כבודו דן בבקשתי” (”his honour is considering my request”).

Other persons of authority are normally addressed by their title only, rather than by name, using the second person singular. For example, officers and commanders in the army are addressed as “המפקד” (”hamfaked”, “the commander”) by troops.

In non-Hebrew-speaking Jewish culture, the second-person form of address is similarly avoided in cases of higher authority (e.g., a student in a yeshiva would be far more likely to say in a classroom discussion “yesterday the rabbi told us…” than “yesterday you told us…”). However, this usage is limited to more conservative (i.e. Orthodox) circles.

Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu)

In both versions of Hindustani, there are three levels of honorifics:

*आप آپ āp/[aːp]: Formal and respectable form for ”you”. Used in all formal settings and speaking to persons who are senior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of “you people” (आप लोग آپ لوگ ”āp log”) or “you all” (आप सब آپ سب ”āp sab”).

*तुम تُم tum/[tum]: Informal form of ”you”. Used in all informal settings and speaking to persons who are junior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of “you people” (तुम लोग تُم لوگ ”tum log”) or “you all” (तुम सब تُم سب ”tum sab”).

*तू تُو tū/[tuː]: Extremely informal form of ”you”. Strictly singular, its plural form would be तुम تُم ”tum”. Inappropriate use of this form — i.e. other than in addressing children, very close friends, or in poetic language (either with God or with lovers) — risks being perceived as offensive in Pakistan or India.

Hungarian

Hungarian provides numerous, often subtle means of T–V distinction:

The use of the second-person conjugation with the pronoun ”te” (plural ”ti”) is the most informal mode. As in many other European languages, it is used within families, among children, lovers, close friends, (nowadays often) among coworkers, and in some communities, suggesting an idea of brotherhood. Adults unilaterally address children this way, and it is the form used in addressing God and other Christian saints (such as Jesus Christ or the Blessed Virgin), animals, and objects or ideas. Sociologically, the use of this form is widening. Whereas traditionally the switch to ”te” is often a symbolic milestone between people, sometimes sealed by drinking a glass of wine together (“pertu”), today people under the age of about thirty will often mutually adopt ”te” automatically in informal situations. A notable example is the Internet: strangers meeting online use the informal forms of address virtually exclusively, regardless of age or status differences; even Ferenc Gyurcsány as a Prime Minister in office encouraged people in his blog to use ”te” mutually when asking him. IKEA (or rather, its Hungarian team) was noted and practically unique in its choice of this way of addressing people in Hungary in its brochures; reactions were mixed.

Nevertheless, formal forms of address are alive and well in Hungarian:

* The third-person verb conjugation is the primary basis of formal address. The choice of which ”pronoun” to use, however, is fraught with difficulty (and indeed a common solution when in doubt is to simply avoid using any pronoun at all).

** The pronoun ”maga” (plural ”maguk”), for instance, is considered the basic formal equivalent of “you”, but may not be used indiscriminately, as it tends to imply an existing or desired personal acquaintance. (It would not, for instance, ordinarily be used in a conversation where the relative social roles are predominantly important – say, between professor and student.) Typical situations where ”maga” might be used are, e.g., distant relatives, neighbours, fellow travellers on the train, or at the hairdresser’s. If one already knows these people, they may even take offence if one were to address them more formally. On the other hand, some urbanites tend to avoid ”maga”, finding it too rural, old-fashioned, offensive or even intimate. – Note that ”maga” coincides with the reflexive pronoun (cf. him/herself), so e.g. the sentence ”Megütötte magát?” can have three meanings: “Did he hit himself?”, “Did he hit you?” or “Did you hit yourself?”. (For the second meaning, probably ”ön” would be used to avoid ambiguity.)

** ”Ön” (plural ”önök”) is the formal, official and impersonal “you”. It is the form used when people take part in a situation merely as representatives of social roles, where personal acquaintance is not a factor. It is thus used in institutions, business, bureaucracy, advertisements, by broadcasters, by shopkeepers to their customers, and whenever one wishes to maintain one’s distance. It is less typical of rural areas or small towns, more typical of cities. It’s often capitalized in letters.

** Other pronouns are nowadays rare, restricted to rural, jocular, dialect, or old-fashioned speech. Such are, for instance, ”kend” and ”kegyed”.

** There is a wide spectrum of third-person address that avoids the above pronouns entirely; preferring to substitute various combinations of the addressee’s names and/or titles. Thus, for instance, a university student might ask ”mit gondol X. tanár úr?” (“What does Professor X. think?”, meant for the addressee) rather than using the insufficiently formal ”maga” or the overly impersonal ”ön”. (Note that it is possible because the formal second-person conjugation of verbs is the same as the third-person conjugation.)

* Finally, the auxiliary verb ”tetszik” (lit. “it pleases [you]“) is an indirect alternative (or, perhaps, supplement) to direct address with the third or even second person. In terms of grammar, it can only be applied if the addressed person is mentioned in the nominative, otherwise it is replaced by forms with the name or ”maga.” It is very polite (sometimes seen as over-polite) and not as formal as the ”Ön/maga” form. Children usually address adults outside their family this way. Adults may address more distant relatives, housekeepers and older persons using this form, and some men habitually address older or younger women this way (this is slightly old-fashioned).

:* “Tanár úr” is a form of addressing for professors (cf. “Sir”); “tanár urat” is the accusative. Other forms of addressing are also possible, to avoid specifying the ”maga” and ”ön” pronouns.

:** “Mari nénit” is an example name in the accusative (cf. “Aunt Mary”).

Icelandic

In modern Icelandic the formal second person pronoun (”þér” or ”Þér” for both singular and plural) is archaic. Today, it is used only on rare occasions when one intends to be extremely formal or when one wants to treat another person with contempt or create/maintain distance between the parties. The formal pronoun is sometimes used in translations from a language that adheres to them, in formalized official correspondence and court proceedings. Some phrases such as ”excuse me” (”afsakið mig”) and ”please mark your luggage” (”vinsamlegast merkið farangur yðar”) are still commonly used with the formal second person pronoun and traditional sayings such as ”seek and you shall find” (”leitið og þér munuð finna”).

Ido

In theory ”tu” is limited to friends and family, whereas ”vu” is used anywhere else. However, many users actually adapt the practice in their own mother tongue and use ”tu” and ”vu” accordingly. In the plural, though, the only form in use is ”vi”, which does not distinguish between formal and informal address.

In all cases, an -n is added to the original pronoun to indicate a direct object that precedes its own verb: ”Me amoras tu” (I love you) becomes ”Tun me amoras” if the direct object takes the first place, for example for emphatic purposes.

Italian

In Italian the formal second-person singular pronoun is ”lei” which means “she”, with the third-person singular of the verb, as opposed to the informal ”tu”, with the second-person singular. For the background to the use of “she” as a polite pronoun, see the section “History” below.

The ”Lei” may be capitalized as a sign of respect, particularly in administrative or business correspondence; if the pronoun is capitalized, so are all its forms, including the enclitics: ””…vorrei incontrarLa per parlarGliene”” “…I should like to meet you to talk to you about this”.

The polite plural form ”Loro” (“them”), followed by a verb in the third plural person, is rarely used nowadays; a very polite alternative to ”Loro” is ”Esse” or ”Essi”, but it’s never used and much archaic. It is also possible to use ”Ella” as a very polite alternative, but this is perceived as archaic, since in spoken Italian the nominative forms of the personal pronouns ”egli” (“he”), ”essi/esse” (“they”) and ”ella” (“she”) have fallen out of common use, being replaced by the accusative forms ”lui” (“him”), ”loro” (“them”) and ”lei” (“her”).

”Lei” is nowadays generally concorded with the gender of the addressee; it might actually not be present in sentences as Italian is not subject-compulsory, and is then understood by the verb being conjugated in the third person.

* “Have you ever been in Rome?”

** ””[Lei] è mai stato a Roma?”” (”-o”: to a male)

** ””[Lei] è mai stata a Roma?”” (”-a”: to a female; rarely to a male, in a literary or archaic style).

The ”voi” is normally used both in informal and formal contexts when addressing more than one person. A situation where ”Loro” might still be heard is in restaurants, because many waiters still use this form to address customers. Sometimes in some elegant restaurants, the waiters still use as alternative to the pronouns ”Lei” the form ”il signore” (the sir or gentleman), ”la signora” (the madam or lady) and for the pronoun ”Loro” the form ”i signori” (the gentlemen) , ”le signore” (the ladies)

* “What do you [plural] wish to eat?”

** ””Che cosa desiderate mangiare?”” (”voi” is understood)

* ””Che cosa desiderano mangiare i signori/le signore?”” (What do the gentlemen/ladies wish to eat?)

* ””Che cosa desidera mangiare il signore/la signora?”” (What does Sir/Madam wish to eat?)

In administrative correspondence and on very formal invitations, ”la S.V.” may be written instead of the pronoun ”Lei”: ””La S.V. è invitata…””. The abbreviation stands for ”la Signoria Vostra” “Your Lordship/Ladyship”, which is the historical basis for the use of the third-person feminine pronoun (see also below).

”Lei” is normally used in formal settings, or with strangers, and it is used reciprocally between adults: the usage may not be reciprocal when young people address older strangers or otherwise respected people. Students are addressed with ”tu” by their teachers until the end of high school with few exceptions, and usually with ”Lei” in universities. Students might use ”tu” with their teachers in elementary school, but switch to ”Lei” from middle school.

”Voi” (“you”, plural) may be used by some speakers instead of ”lei”, especially in Southern Italy, but it sounds old-fashioned. When it is addressed respectfully to one person, the pronoun ”voi” is used with singular adjectives and participles, concorded with the gender of the addressee, although the verbs are still in the second person plural form. Some people might see this use of ”voi” as reminiscent of the Fascist regime, since it imposed the use of ”voi” instead of ”lei” (see below); but the pronoun had been traditional for centuries, and was used for example by children to address parents, as it was less formal than ”lei”. ”Voi” can be found in instruction booklets, where it is more common than ”tu”, ”lei” or impersonal constructions, and sometimes in advertisements (together with ”tu”, while ”lei” would sound too distant); but in these settings it is often used as a plural pronoun rather than a polite form.

Currently, people tend to address strangers of their own age using the informal ”tu” until about thirty years of age. ”Tu” is also the pronoun of first choice to address strangers on the Internet. In some professional circles (notably among journalists and lawyers), the ”tu”-form is used immediately even on first meeting, as a sign of recognition of a colleague’s status as a member of the same profession. In written correspondence, however, the pronoun will usually be capitalized (”Tu”) to express also respect towards somebody who is not a close friend.

History

At the beginning of its history, in the Middle Ages, the Italian language had a ”tu/voi” distinction of formality, as with other Romance languages; in his ”Divine Comedy” (begun in 1307), Dante normally uses ”tu” when talking to the people he meets, but addresses them with ”voi” when he means to show particular respect, for example to his former teacher (””Siete voi qui, ser Brunetto?”” translated ””Are you here, sir Brunetto?””).

During the Renaissance the use of ”Lei” as a polite pronoun began, and subsequently spread with some influence from Spanish; the origin of this usage is due to expressions as “Your Lordship/Eminence/Majesty/Holiness/…”, where all of these nouns were feminine in gender (”Vostra Signoria/Eminenza/Maestà/Santità/…”) and referred to in the third-person singular.

For a few centuries (possibly from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century), there was a three-pronoun system in use, with ”tu/voi/lei” employed with a growing degree of formality; this was very well exemplified in Manzoni’s novel ”The Betrothed” (written in 1840–42 and set in 1628–30), where the characters talk using all three pronouns: the usage was often not reciprocal, with several combinations based on age and social status.

In 1938, under Fascist rule, the use of ”lei” was banned on nationalistic grounds, since the use of ”voi” was thought of as “more Italian”: the ban lasted only for a few years, until the end of World War II, and left little trace. However, in some parts of Italy, particularly in Southern Italy, ”voi” had always been preferred as the polite form and continued to be used regionally, while ”lei” definitely prevailed as the standard V-form.

Japanese

In Japanese, as in Vietnamese, kinship terms, titles, or names are commonly used instead of first-, second- or third-person pronouns; real personal pronouns do not exist in the language, and the words most closely corresponding to them are grammatically nouns. As in Korean, there are several levels of politeness regarding social hierarchy, and polite language encompasses not only pronouns but also verb endings and vocabulary as well. (See the articles Japanese pronouns and Honorific speech in Japanese for more information.)

Korean

The Korean language has historically used several complex gradations. There are at least seven honorific speech levels, each with a singular and plural distinction, creating 14 basic verb stems. However most levels are now redundant in modern Korean. Basic distinctions are made between simplified ”plain” and ”polite” conjugations of verbs and adjectives.

Plain forms are used when speaking to family, close friends and social inferiors. If Koreans are unsure about their social superiority, they will always use polite forms until it is determined who is socially inferior. When they wish to use plain form, Koreans use 말을 놓다 ”mareul nota” (literally “to release language”) for permission to converse in basic forms. Respectful polite forms are known as존댓말 ”jondaenmal” and neutral plain forms are 예사말 ”yesanmal”. The plainest forms are known as 반말 ”banmal” (literally “half speech”) which are spoken among close friends or to social inferiors. But these forms become derogatory and provocative when directed at those who should be addressed in a polite manner.

Honorific speech triggered by the subject of the sentence is called 높임말 ”nopimmal” and is used independently of the speaker’s social level. For example a speaker who uses -하십니다 ”-hasimnida” which means “do(es) …”, adds the infix -시 ”-si-” to honour the sentence’s subject and the suffix 니다 ”-mnida” to express courtesy or politeness (or simply their distance) towards those listening. Polite and plain forms maybe mixed in 높임말 ”nopimmal” as the subject of the sentence and those spoken to, do not have to be the same people. The speaker can also honour a higher person with the infix -시 ”-si-” while talking to a friend using only 반말 ”banmal” plain forms.

Lithuanian

Historically, aside from familiar ”tu” and respectful ”jūs” or ”Jūs”, also used to express plural, there was a special form ”tamsta”, mostly referred to in third person singular (although referring in second person singular is also not uncommon). This form was used to communicate with a stranger who has not earned particular respect (a beggar, for example). Through the Soviet occupation period, however, this form was mostly replaced by standard neutral form ”drauge” (‘comrade’ in vocative form), and by now ”tamsta” is used sparsely. The very common way of addressing people whom one don’t know well is also ”Ponas” (m) and ”Ponia” (f).

Macedonian

Macedonian distinguishes between familiar ”ti” (ти) and respectful ”vie” (вие) — which is also the plural of both forms, used to address a pair or group. (Respectful ”Vie” may be capitalized, while plural ”vie” is not.) Generally, ti is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always use ti to address each other and are addressed in this way by adults but are taught to address adults with ”vie”. Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as ”vie” regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as ”ti” in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal ”vie” when talking to each other but may transition to ”ti” very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people, ”ti” is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses ”ti” to address B, then B also uses ”ti” to address A. While people may transition quickly from ”vie” to ”ti”, such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of ”ti” without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult, particularly if the other party maintains using ”vie”.

Norwegian

In Norwegian, the polite form “De”/”Dem” and “De”/”Dykk” is rarely heard in spoken language. Norwegians almost exclusively use ”du” in their daily life. ”De” is practically exclusively used in written works, business letters, theatrical plays and translations where an impression of formality must be retained. A popular saying is that “De” is reserved for the king; this, however, would be incorrect according to royal etiquette, requiring that the King (and other members of the royal family) be referred to as “Deres majestet” (Your majesty) or in the third person singular as “Kongen” (the King), “Dronningen” (the Queen) or the alike.

However, it should be mentioned that Norwegians also generally refer to one another by first name only unless the person is better known by full or last name only, putting this weakening of the courteous pronoun into a general pattern of declining use of polite speech (for town dwellers), or of a return to traditions of the near past (for country-dwellers). For example, a student might address his professor John Doe, not as “Mr./Dr. Doe”, but as “John”, but would refer to the president of the US as “Obama”, not “Barack”. Norwegian politicians and celebrities are sometimes referred to by their first names, especially in newspaper headlines. Nicknames are not very common.

As the distinction between Bokmål and Nynorsk exists only for written Norwegian (all Norwegians speak their respective dialects), the T–V rules are the same for both forms. Except that Bokmål uses the third person plural to indicate politeness (as in German), while Nynorsk uses the second person plural (as in French). In both forms, when these pronouns are used to indicate politeness, they are always capitalised (to show deference, and separate them from when they indicate, respectively, the third and second person plural).

Polish

Portuguese

In Brazilian Portuguese, ”você” and ”vocês” (singular and plural “you”, respectively) are used informally, while ”o senhor” and ”a senhora” (“Mr”/”Sir” and “Mrs”/”Madam”, plurals ”os senhores” and ”as senhoras”) are used in formal speech.

In many parts of the country (the state of Rio Grande do Sul, some parts of the City of Rio de Janeiro, and the northern and northeastern states and in the City of Santos) ”tu” (singular “you”) is used informally, but the plural form is always ”vocês”. However, in colloquial conversation, the pronoun ”tu” is used with the verb conjugated as “você” (third-person singular).

In European Portuguese (as well as in Africa and Asia), ”tu” (singular “you”) is commonly used as the informal addressing pronoun, while ”você” is used in formal or semi-formal situations; ”vós” (plural of “tu”) is used only for informal situations while ”vocês” (plural of “você”) is used for both formal and informal speech. The forms ”o senhor” and ”a senhora” (plurals ”os senhores” and ”as senhoras”) are used for the most formal situations (roughly equivalent to “mister” and “mistress”.) Similarly to some Romance languages (e.g. Italian), European Portuguese often ommits “tu” (Portuguese informal) or “você/ o senhor” (Portuguese formal), since the verb conjugation (second- or third-person) already points to informality or formality respectively. The omission of “você” (Brazilian informal) or “o senhor” (Brazilian formal) cannot be practised in Brazilian Portuguese as often as in European Portuguese , since both demand third-person conjugation of verbs.

However, there is considerable regional variation in the use of these terms, and more specific forms of address are sometimes employed like ”Vossa Excelência”, for instance.

Historically, ”você” derives from ”vossa mercê” (“your mercy” or “your grace”) via the intermediate forms ”vossemecê” and ”vosmecê”; compare with the derivation of Spanish ”usted” from ”vuestra merced”. For that reason, ”você” and ”vocês” require verbs conjugated in the third person, rather than the second person. Although, only in very informal conversation, that conjugation is wrongly changed for ”tu” form (second-person singular) in Imperative mood.

The second person plural pronoun ”vós”, from Latin ”vos”, is regionally used in Portugal for informal situations as an alternative to “vocês”. The use of “vós” as a formal second person singular pronoun has fallen into disuse in all but a few regional dialects of Northern Portugal, where it expresses an intermediate degree of formality between ”tu” and ”você(s)”. This use is kept as an archaism in literature (historical setting), prayer (when addressing a deity, Blessed Virgin Mary, etc.) or exaggerated (mocking) ceremonial.

Romanian

Romanian ”dumneavoastră” when used for the second-person singular formal takes plural verbs but singular adjectives, similar to French ”vous”. It is used roughly in the same manner as in Continental French and shows no signs of disappearing. It is also used as a more formal ”voi”. It originates from ”domnia voastră” – your lordship. As it happens with all subjective pronouns ”dumneavoastră” is many times omitted from sentences, its use being implied by verbs in the second person plural form.

The form ”dumneata” (originating from ”domnia ta” – thy lordship) is less distant than ”dumneavoastră” and somewhat midway between ”tu” and ”dumneavoastră”. The verb is conjugated, as for ”tu”, in the second person singular form. Older people towards younger people and peers favor ”Dumneata”. Its use is gradually declining.

A more colloquial form of ”dumneata” is ”mata” or even ”matale” or ”tălică.” It is more familiar than ”tu” and is used only in some regions of Romania. It is used only with immediate family members, and is spelled and pronounced the same in all cases, similar to ”dumneavoastră.” It is conjugated in the second-person singular, like ”tu.”

Russian

Russian distinguishes between familiar ”ty” (”ты”) and respectful ”vy” (”вы”) — which is also the plural of both forms, used to address a pair or group. (Respectful ”Vy” may be capitalized, while plural ”vy” is not.) Generally, ”ty” is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always use ”ty” to address each other and are addressed in this way by adults but are taught to address adults with ”vy”. Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as ”vy” regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as ”ty” in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal ”vy” when talking to each other but may transition to ”ty” very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people, ”ty” is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses ”ty” to address B, then B also uses ”ty” to address A. While people may transition quickly from ”vy” to ”ty”, such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of ”ty” without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult, particularly if the other party maintains using ”vy”.

Historically, the rules have been in favor of more formal usage; as late as the 19th century, it was accepted in many circles (generally among the more educated) that ”vy” is to be used between close friends, between husband and wife, and when addressing one’s parents (but not one’s children), all of which situations today would strongly call for using ”ty”.

The choice between ”ty” and ”vy” is closely related, yet sometimes different, from the choice of the addressing format — that is, the selection from the first name, patronymics, last name, and the title to be used when addressing the person. Normally, ”ty” is associated with the informal addressing by first name only (or, even more informally, by the last name only), whereas ”vy” is associated with the more formal addressing format of using the first name together with patronymics (roughly analogous to “title followed by last name” in English) or the last name together with a title (the last name is almost never used together with either of the other two names to ”address” someone, although such combinations are routinely used to ”introduce” or ”mention” someone).

Scottish Gaelic

The informal form of the second-person singular in Scottish Gaelic is ”thu”/”tu” (emphatic: ”thusa”/”tusa”), used when addressing a person the speaker knows well, or when addressing a person younger or relatively the same age as the speaker. When addressing a superior, an elder, or a stranger, or in conducting business, the form ”sibh” (emphatic: ”sibhse”) is used. (”Sibh” is also the second person plural). This distinction carries over into prepositional pronouns: for instance, ”agad” and ”agaibh” (at you), ”riut” and ”ruibh” (with you), ”umad” and ”umaibh” (about you), etc., and into possessive pronouns ”do” and ”ur” (your).

Slovene

Adapted from the Wikipedia article T–V distinction, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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